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Bone & joints

General

Anatomy-bone & joints

Authors: Dariusz Borys, M.D., Vijay Shankar, M.D.

Last author update: 1 January 2012

Last staff update: 21 July 2023

Copyright: 2003-2025, PathologyOutlines.com, Inc.

PubMed Search: Bone normal anatomy

Table of Contents

Cite this page: Borys D, Shankar V. Anatomy-bone & joints. PathologyOutlines.com website. https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/bonenormalanatomy.html. Accessed January 14th, 2025.

Bone

Basic function of bone
- Bone is the basic unit of the skeletal system and provides shape and support for the body, as well as protection for some organs
- There are 206 bones in the human skeleton: 80 axial skeletal bones (e.g., skull, vertebral column and sacrum) and 120 appendicular skeletal bones (e.g., bones of extremities, scapula, pelvis)

Gross structure of bone
- Epiphysis: region between the growth plate or growth plate scar and the extended end of bone, covered by articular cartilage
- Metaphysis: region between the growth plate and diaphysis; contains abundant trabecular bone, but the cortical bone thins here comparing to diaphysis
- Diaphysis or shaft: region between metaphyses, composed mainly of compact cortical bone
- Physis (epiphyseal plate, growth plate): region of bone that separates the epiphysis from metaphysis
- Zone of endochondral ossification in actively growing bone or the epiphyseal scar in a full grown bone
- Cross section: periosteum, cortex (composed of cortical bone or compact bone), medullary space (composed of cancellous or spongy bone)
- Bone composition: 35% organic (cells, proteins), 65% calcium hydroxyapatite (contains 99% of body's calcium, 85% of phosphorus, 65% of sodium, also magnesium)
- Hydroxyapatite crystal is formed via phase transition; 12 day lag between matrix deposition and mineralization
- Collagen resists tension, hydroxyapatite and proteoglycans in cartilage resist compression
- Thicker cortex in middle of long bones resists bending; cancellous bone at ends of long bones resists compression

Joints

Junction between adjacent bones that provide painless range of motion and stability
Synovial or nonsynovial

Synovial joints:
- Also called diarthroses
- Contain joint space between ends of bones formed by endochondral ossification
- Joints covered by hyaline cartilage, strengthened by dense fibrous capsule continuous with periosteum of bones and an inner synovial membrane
- Joint is reinforced by ligaments and muscles
- Presence of joint space allows wide range of motion and maintains stability during use
Nonsynovial joints:
- Also called solid joint or synarthrosis
- No joint space present
- Provides structural integrity and minimal movement
- May be fibrous / synarthrosis (cranial sutures, bonds between roots of teeth and jaw bones) or cartilaginous / amphiarthrosis (manubriosternalis and pubic)
Bursae:
- Found when muscles, tendons and skin glide over bony prominences
- Subject to same diseases as large joint spaces
Menisci:
- Composed of collagen arranged circumferentially with some radial fibers
- In young adults, are white, translucent and supple
- Become more opaque, yellow, less supple in elderly

Classification

Bones are divided on the basis of their location, shape, size and structure

Based on location, bones can be classified as
- Axial skeleton: bones of the skull, scapula, vertebral column
- Appendicular skeleton: bones of the pectoral girdle, pelvis and limbs
Based on shape, bones can be classified as
- Flat bone: bones of the skull, sternum, pelvis and ribs
- Tubular bone: long tubular bones are bones of the extremities (e.g., femur, humerus); short tubular bones are bones of hands and feet
- Irregular bone: bones of the face and vertebrae
- Sesamoid bones: patella
Based on size, bones can be classified as
- Long bone: tubular bones of extremities (e.g., femur, humerus)
- Short bone: cuboidal in shape, in the foot (tarsal bones) and wrist (carpal bones)

Blood supply

The blood supply of bone varies with different types of bone, but vascular supply is especially rich in bones rich in red bone marrow

Long bones
- Diaphyseal nutrient artery: most important arterial supply, passes obliquely through cortical bone
- Metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries: numerous small arteries supply the ends of bones; these blood vessels arise from arteries that supply adjacent joints, anastomose with the diaphyseal capillaries and terminate in bone marrow
- Periosteal arterioles: these vessels supply the outer layers of cortical bone
Large irregular bones, short bones and flat bones
- These bones are supplied by superficial periosteal arterioles
Venous and lymphatic drainage
- Blood is drained from the bone via venous and lymphatic vessels that accompany arteries and frequently leave through foramina near the articular end of the bones
Nerve supply of bone
- Nerves are most rich in articular extremities of long bones, vertebrae and larger flat bones
- Nerves accompany the blood vessels to the interior of the bone and to the perivascular spaces of the haversian canals
- The periosteal nerves are sensory, causing periosteum to be particularly sensitive to tearing or tension

Bone tissue types and structure

Bone tissue can be classified based on texture, matrix arrangement; also maturity and developmental origin (see Histology topic)

Based on texture, bone can be classified as
- Compact bone (dense bone, cortical bone): dense bone that surrounds trabecular bone in the center, contains Haversian system and secondary osteons
- Sponge bone (trabecular bone, cancellous bone): sponge-like with numerous cavities, located in the center of bone cavity, consists of connected bony trabeculae
Based on matrix arrangement bone can be classified as
- Lamellar bone: mature bone with collagen fibers arranged in lamellae
  - Lamellae of sponge bone are arranged parallel to each other
  - In contrast, lamellae of compact bone are organized concentrically to around vascular canal (haversian canal)
- Woven bone: immature bone; collagen fibers in woven bone are arranged in irregular random arrays and contain smaller amounts of mineral substance and a higher proportion of osteocytes to lamellar component
  - Woven bone is eventually converted to lamellar bone

Diagrams / tables

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